Time is money in any business, but especially in the aviation industry. At an airline, the dollars can add up quickly when a $100-million airplane unexpectedly sits idle, even for a short period of time.
To help airlines reduce flight delays, cancellations, air turn-backs and diversions, The Boeing Company is introducing a new service, Airplane Health Management, or AHM. AHM monitors the health of an airplane in flight and relays that information in real time from the air to the ground. When the airplane arrives at the gate, maintenance crews are ready to make any needed repairs quickly.
"With Airplane Health Management, airlines will be able to identify problems long before an airplane lands," said Lou Mancini, vice president of Maintenance Services in Boeing Commercial Aviation Services. "Airline personnel will have time to review maintenance procedures, assemble necessary parts and be waiting for the airplane when it arrives."
The new service also allows airlines to realize efficiencies in their operations and provide a superior experience for their passengers, Mancini added.Airplane Health Management collects data from the airplane in real-time. The primary source of the data is the airplane central maintenance computer or condition monitoring system. AHM also can collect electronic logbook data from the new Electronic Flight Bag (which Boeing is introducing on the 777-300ER).
AHM continually integrates incoming data from each airplane with basic model design data, in-service experiences reported by airplane operators and industry-wide fleet-performance data for that airplane model.
"The original equipment manufacturer is best-positioned to offer such comprehensive analysis," Mancini said. "We can look across a database wider than that of any specific airline."
If there is a problem with a particular airplane in flight, AHM notifies airline personnel via the Internet or by pager. The notification directs the airline to the Boeing business-to-business Web portal, MyBoeingFleet.com, for flight-specific information that they can use to make informed maintenance decisions.
In addition to diagnosing an airplane problem in flight, AHM also can be used to predict when parts might fail, so that they can be replaced or repaired during a regularly scheduled maintenance check as a preventive measure, rather than at an inconvenient time or place when a part fails unexpectedly.
"Basically, we're providing a single source of information from which airlines can make maintenance decisions and identify trends to support long-term fleet reliability programs," Mancini said. "AHM is both a diagnostic and a prognostic tool."
Another feature of AHM is that it's not limited to just Boeing airplanes. According to Mancini, "We can provide portions of this service for other commercial airplanes, not just our own."
Sunday, April 12, 2009
Commerical Airplnes e-Enabling the Future
At the 2003 Paris Air Show, Boeing unveiled its vision of an "e-Enabled" future. According to this vision, the entire air transport system is tied in to a seamless network, employing a common onboard information and communication infrastructure for the benefit of passengers, flight and cabin crews, airline operations, system performance and the industry.
Nearly two years later, elements from throughout Boeing have brought to life many key aspects of the e-Enabled business environment. And there's more to come.
"Boeing and the industry know this is coming because of things we are experiencing in our daily lives," said Chris Kettering, e-Enabling program director for Boeing Commercial Aviation Services. As an example of this daily-life transformation, Kettering said his mother was a travel agent whose job was "to be a middle person to help communicate what the airline was capable of providing." But today, he said, with the World Wide Web and Internet sites such as Expedia and Travelocity, "people can do that for themselves—and, by the way, do it quicker, easier and, most importantly, cheaper."
Boeing observed that trend and jumped into the information technology world with a variety of offerings that have provided real value to the air transport industry. Among them:
Airplane Health Management, which e-Enables maintenance by letting airlines monitor engine and airframe systems information in real time. AHM is working well at four airlines around the world.
The Boeing Electronic Flight Bag, which e-Enables the flight deck by giving pilots all the information they need to fly the airplane in a handy digital format. The Boeing Electronic Flight Bag became the first commercially certified EFB in November 2003 and has been ordered by seven airlines around the world.
Connexion by Boeing, which brings the fastest available high-speed Internet, data and entertainment connectivity to aircraft in flight. Connexion entered commercial service in May 2004 and has 11 airline customers.
MyBoeingFleet, a secure business-to-business site on the World Wide Web that gives airlines access to Boeing aircraft data such as engineering drawings and flight technical manuals. MyBoeingFleet has more than 10,000 users from more than 130 airlines, who generate more than 5 million hits each month.
Nearly two years later, elements from throughout Boeing have brought to life many key aspects of the e-Enabled business environment. And there's more to come.
"Boeing and the industry know this is coming because of things we are experiencing in our daily lives," said Chris Kettering, e-Enabling program director for Boeing Commercial Aviation Services. As an example of this daily-life transformation, Kettering said his mother was a travel agent whose job was "to be a middle person to help communicate what the airline was capable of providing." But today, he said, with the World Wide Web and Internet sites such as Expedia and Travelocity, "people can do that for themselves—and, by the way, do it quicker, easier and, most importantly, cheaper."
Boeing observed that trend and jumped into the information technology world with a variety of offerings that have provided real value to the air transport industry. Among them:
Airplane Health Management, which e-Enables maintenance by letting airlines monitor engine and airframe systems information in real time. AHM is working well at four airlines around the world.
The Boeing Electronic Flight Bag, which e-Enables the flight deck by giving pilots all the information they need to fly the airplane in a handy digital format. The Boeing Electronic Flight Bag became the first commercially certified EFB in November 2003 and has been ordered by seven airlines around the world.
Connexion by Boeing, which brings the fastest available high-speed Internet, data and entertainment connectivity to aircraft in flight. Connexion entered commercial service in May 2004 and has 11 airline customers.
MyBoeingFleet, a secure business-to-business site on the World Wide Web that gives airlines access to Boeing aircraft data such as engineering drawings and flight technical manuals. MyBoeingFleet has more than 10,000 users from more than 130 airlines, who generate more than 5 million hits each month.
Tuesday, April 7, 2009
Glass Cockpits on Commerical Aircrafts
Behind the ScreenMar 25, 2009
By Mike Gamauf
Since the earliest days of aviation, pilots have been staring at gauges to help ascertain the condition of their machines and the world around them. Orville and Wilbur had three instruments on their first Flyer: a stopwatch, an anemometer for measuring wind speed and a tachometer. Subsequently and especially since the introduction of instrument flight and the development of the standard T cluster, engineers managed to cover every available inch of cockpit real estate with some type of instrument, button or switch.
As aircraft became more complex, large passenger and military aircraft required a flight engineer to manage the systems and scan the dozens of gauges and lights, thereby freeing the pilots to concentrate on aviating. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the military sought to de-clutter its cockpits by using small cathode ray tubes (CRT) to replace the mechanical gauges and combine the functions of several instruments onto a computer-generated screen. This was the genesis of the glass cockpit - centering initially on the Primary Flight Display (PFD).
From an aircraft systems perspective, the cockpit's traditional round "steam" gauges provide the flight crew with constant status information. It is up to the pilots to scan the gauges, looking for misbehaving temperatures and pressures. However, unless an advisory threshold is reached, causing the Master caution to illuminate, dangerous trends could go unnoticed until too late. A NASA study completed in the 1970s determined that pilots could be just as safe with a cockpit that provides system status on demand, instead of having information presented continuously via dials or tapes, and with the introduction of "glass," designers embraced that concept. Soon, the rows of steam gauges and banks of caution lights gave way to the Multi-Function Display (MFD). This new display was kind of a general store of aviation data, providing a home for the weather radar, flight planning, GPS navigation aids, enhanced ground proximity warning, TCAS II and even control of the comm/nav radios.
From a maintainer's perspective, the all-glass cockpit is an advance, and not. In many ways, the old electromechanical gauges were easy to maintain. If the thing was inoperative, you replaced it. They were relatively inexpensive and many were TSOed items, which made replacements easy to find. About the worst things that could go wrong were discovering the replacement had a short wire bundle and wouldn't reach the connector behind the instrument panel, or you had to apply tiny pieces of tape to the instrument's face for advisory ranges.
By contrast, an all-glass panel provides a seemingly infinite range of malfunctions: entire screens going dark in flight; mode switching that has a mind of its own; black lines; error codes and good old fashioned inoperable - all accompanied by troubleshooting nightmares. Obtaining replacement displays, which alone cost tens of thousands of dollars, plus the additional electronics like symbol generators, and processors can easily deplete your maintenance reserve budget. Keeping such systems operational and safe can be a resource and management headache.
Most pilots have embraced the all-glass cockpit and find the improved situational awareness tools and functionality beneficial to safe flying. With some flight departments postponing new aircraft purchases, now may be a good time to upgrade the cockpit to take advantage of the latest safety technology. This task usually falls on the maintenance manager's shoulders and there are many options from which to choose. How do you make good choices and end up with the best possible system? We asked fellow maintenance managers and upgrade experts to shine a light on what goes on behind the glass.
By Mike Gamauf
Since the earliest days of aviation, pilots have been staring at gauges to help ascertain the condition of their machines and the world around them. Orville and Wilbur had three instruments on their first Flyer: a stopwatch, an anemometer for measuring wind speed and a tachometer. Subsequently and especially since the introduction of instrument flight and the development of the standard T cluster, engineers managed to cover every available inch of cockpit real estate with some type of instrument, button or switch.
As aircraft became more complex, large passenger and military aircraft required a flight engineer to manage the systems and scan the dozens of gauges and lights, thereby freeing the pilots to concentrate on aviating. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the military sought to de-clutter its cockpits by using small cathode ray tubes (CRT) to replace the mechanical gauges and combine the functions of several instruments onto a computer-generated screen. This was the genesis of the glass cockpit - centering initially on the Primary Flight Display (PFD).
From an aircraft systems perspective, the cockpit's traditional round "steam" gauges provide the flight crew with constant status information. It is up to the pilots to scan the gauges, looking for misbehaving temperatures and pressures. However, unless an advisory threshold is reached, causing the Master caution to illuminate, dangerous trends could go unnoticed until too late. A NASA study completed in the 1970s determined that pilots could be just as safe with a cockpit that provides system status on demand, instead of having information presented continuously via dials or tapes, and with the introduction of "glass," designers embraced that concept. Soon, the rows of steam gauges and banks of caution lights gave way to the Multi-Function Display (MFD). This new display was kind of a general store of aviation data, providing a home for the weather radar, flight planning, GPS navigation aids, enhanced ground proximity warning, TCAS II and even control of the comm/nav radios.
From a maintainer's perspective, the all-glass cockpit is an advance, and not. In many ways, the old electromechanical gauges were easy to maintain. If the thing was inoperative, you replaced it. They were relatively inexpensive and many were TSOed items, which made replacements easy to find. About the worst things that could go wrong were discovering the replacement had a short wire bundle and wouldn't reach the connector behind the instrument panel, or you had to apply tiny pieces of tape to the instrument's face for advisory ranges.
By contrast, an all-glass panel provides a seemingly infinite range of malfunctions: entire screens going dark in flight; mode switching that has a mind of its own; black lines; error codes and good old fashioned inoperable - all accompanied by troubleshooting nightmares. Obtaining replacement displays, which alone cost tens of thousands of dollars, plus the additional electronics like symbol generators, and processors can easily deplete your maintenance reserve budget. Keeping such systems operational and safe can be a resource and management headache.
Most pilots have embraced the all-glass cockpit and find the improved situational awareness tools and functionality beneficial to safe flying. With some flight departments postponing new aircraft purchases, now may be a good time to upgrade the cockpit to take advantage of the latest safety technology. This task usually falls on the maintenance manager's shoulders and there are many options from which to choose. How do you make good choices and end up with the best possible system? We asked fellow maintenance managers and upgrade experts to shine a light on what goes on behind the glass.
Monday, April 6, 2009
Airbus Sees 480 Deliveries In 2010Apr 6, 2009
Robert Wall/Paris wall@aviationweek.com
Airbus is hopeful it can keep production rates relatively solid, with company chief executive officer for customers, John Leahy, suggesting 2010 could see around 480 deliveries, roughly last year's level and what's targeted for 2009.
The aircraft maker also makes clear it will show little flexibility in shifting 2009 deliveries.
Despite the hope of maintaining output, that doesn't mean Airbus isn't feeling the slow down. In the first quarter, Leahy says he saw around 22 sales campaigns, compared with around 100 during that period when the market was at its peak. There were a further eight VIP aircraft campaigns.
As it stands, Airbus says it remains overbooked for 2009 and 2010. In fact, Tom Williams, Airbus executive vice president for programs, notes that Airbus recently had to start looking at which airlines would not get an aircraft this year after a decision was made to reduce production rates for single-aisle aircraft to 34 units per month starting in October. The situation was eased, somewhat, by German carrier Blue Wings losing its operating license, although the carrier is trying to raise the funds to return and may then want the aircraft. Blue Wings had five Airbus deliveries this year planned and 10 next year.
Leahy says the downside risk on deliveries is about 10-15%, not the 30% some industry officials have suggested.
Airbus has set up a Watchtower Committee to review every aircraft delivery position, including financing. As it sees risk, it is engaging airlines about potential changes in taking the aircraft.
However, Leahy stresses there is little flexibility available for 2009 aircraft, since they are largely in build. Airline's will be required to take those aircraft, even if they would rather not, he indicates to financial analysts. Airbus is showing more flexibility in terms of 2010 deliveries.
That situation holds true also for the Airbus flagship A380. Airbus this year plans to buy 18 of the aircraft, but Leahy acknowledges the delivery situation for all is not assured. But while there me be some room for adjustments on later A380 slots, Leahy says any A380 aircraft scheduled for handover this year would be built and, if an airline isn't ready to take the asset, would have to be put in storage.
Robert Wall/Paris wall@aviationweek.com
Airbus is hopeful it can keep production rates relatively solid, with company chief executive officer for customers, John Leahy, suggesting 2010 could see around 480 deliveries, roughly last year's level and what's targeted for 2009.
The aircraft maker also makes clear it will show little flexibility in shifting 2009 deliveries.
Despite the hope of maintaining output, that doesn't mean Airbus isn't feeling the slow down. In the first quarter, Leahy says he saw around 22 sales campaigns, compared with around 100 during that period when the market was at its peak. There were a further eight VIP aircraft campaigns.
As it stands, Airbus says it remains overbooked for 2009 and 2010. In fact, Tom Williams, Airbus executive vice president for programs, notes that Airbus recently had to start looking at which airlines would not get an aircraft this year after a decision was made to reduce production rates for single-aisle aircraft to 34 units per month starting in October. The situation was eased, somewhat, by German carrier Blue Wings losing its operating license, although the carrier is trying to raise the funds to return and may then want the aircraft. Blue Wings had five Airbus deliveries this year planned and 10 next year.
Leahy says the downside risk on deliveries is about 10-15%, not the 30% some industry officials have suggested.
Airbus has set up a Watchtower Committee to review every aircraft delivery position, including financing. As it sees risk, it is engaging airlines about potential changes in taking the aircraft.
However, Leahy stresses there is little flexibility available for 2009 aircraft, since they are largely in build. Airline's will be required to take those aircraft, even if they would rather not, he indicates to financial analysts. Airbus is showing more flexibility in terms of 2010 deliveries.
That situation holds true also for the Airbus flagship A380. Airbus this year plans to buy 18 of the aircraft, but Leahy acknowledges the delivery situation for all is not assured. But while there me be some room for adjustments on later A380 slots, Leahy says any A380 aircraft scheduled for handover this year would be built and, if an airline isn't ready to take the asset, would have to be put in storage.
Airbus Sees 480 Deliveries In 2010Apr 6, 2009
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Robert Wall/Paris wall@aviationweek.com
Airbus is hopeful it can keep production rates relatively solid, with company chief executive officer for customers, John Leahy, suggesting 2010 could see around 480 deliveries, roughly last year's level and what's targeted for 2009.
The aircraft maker also makes clear it will show little flexibility in shifting 2009 deliveries.
Despite the hope of maintaining output, that doesn't mean Airbus isn't feeling the slow down. In the first quarter, Leahy says he saw around 22 sales campaigns, compared with around 100 during that period when the market was at its peak. There were a further eight VIP aircraft campaigns.
As it stands, Airbus says it remains overbooked for 2009 and 2010. In fact, Tom Williams, Airbus executive vice president for programs, notes that Airbus recently had to start looking at which airlines would not get an aircraft this year after a decision was made to reduce production rates for single-aisle aircraft to 34 units per month starting in October. The situation was eased, somewhat, by German carrier Blue Wings losing its operating license, although the carrier is trying to raise the funds to return and may then want the aircraft. Blue Wings had five Airbus deliveries this year planned and 10 next year.
Leahy says the downside risk on deliveries is about 10-15%, not the 30% some industry officials have suggested.
Airbus has set up a Watchtower Committee to review every aircraft delivery position, including financing. As it sees risk, it is engaging airlines about potential changes in taking the aircraft.
However, Leahy stresses there is little flexibility available for 2009 aircraft, since they are largely in build. Airline's will be required to take those aircraft, even if they would rather not, he indicates to financial analysts. Airbus is showing more flexibility in terms of 2010 deliveries.
That situation holds true also for the Airbus flagship A380. Airbus this year plans to buy 18 of the aircraft, but Leahy acknowledges the delivery situation for all is not assured. But while there me be some room for adjustments on later A380 slots, Leahy says any A380 aircraft scheduled for handover this year would be built and, if an airline isn't ready to take the asset, would have to be put in storage.
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Robert Wall/Paris wall@aviationweek.com
Airbus is hopeful it can keep production rates relatively solid, with company chief executive officer for customers, John Leahy, suggesting 2010 could see around 480 deliveries, roughly last year's level and what's targeted for 2009.
The aircraft maker also makes clear it will show little flexibility in shifting 2009 deliveries.
Despite the hope of maintaining output, that doesn't mean Airbus isn't feeling the slow down. In the first quarter, Leahy says he saw around 22 sales campaigns, compared with around 100 during that period when the market was at its peak. There were a further eight VIP aircraft campaigns.
As it stands, Airbus says it remains overbooked for 2009 and 2010. In fact, Tom Williams, Airbus executive vice president for programs, notes that Airbus recently had to start looking at which airlines would not get an aircraft this year after a decision was made to reduce production rates for single-aisle aircraft to 34 units per month starting in October. The situation was eased, somewhat, by German carrier Blue Wings losing its operating license, although the carrier is trying to raise the funds to return and may then want the aircraft. Blue Wings had five Airbus deliveries this year planned and 10 next year.
Leahy says the downside risk on deliveries is about 10-15%, not the 30% some industry officials have suggested.
Airbus has set up a Watchtower Committee to review every aircraft delivery position, including financing. As it sees risk, it is engaging airlines about potential changes in taking the aircraft.
However, Leahy stresses there is little flexibility available for 2009 aircraft, since they are largely in build. Airline's will be required to take those aircraft, even if they would rather not, he indicates to financial analysts. Airbus is showing more flexibility in terms of 2010 deliveries.
That situation holds true also for the Airbus flagship A380. Airbus this year plans to buy 18 of the aircraft, but Leahy acknowledges the delivery situation for all is not assured. But while there me be some room for adjustments on later A380 slots, Leahy says any A380 aircraft scheduled for handover this year would be built and, if an airline isn't ready to take the asset, would have to be put in storage.
Wednesday, March 11, 2009
http://www.aviation.com/php/multimedia/imagegallery/igviewer.php?aid=22852
Great Innovations in Aviation
U.S. Air Force Photo
Monoplane
In the early days of flight, the biplane design was simply more practical than the monoplane. Early wooden and fabric planes were very light and hard to control, and were susceptible to structural damage in the air. Once all-metal aircraft became widely used, the weight-efficient and lower-drag monoplane took over. Cantilever technology made fixed-wing monoplanes much stronger and less liable to twist in flight. By World War II biplanes had mostly been replaced, and monoplanes took over as the common aircraft design.
United Kingdom Government
Transatlantic Flight
The first two transatlantic flights took place within just weeks of each other. The second, piloted by John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in 1919, was the first non-stop flight from North America to Europe. They took off from Newfoundland in a twin-engine Vickers Vimy IV. The following morning, after almost 16 1/2 hours in flight, the pair landed in Ireland, having braved the elements and some engine troubles. Though rumors of Brown saving the flight by climbing on the aircraft s wings to scrap off ice are unsubstantiated, the crew did face fog and could only communicate by hand-written notes due to the noise of the plane. Eight years later, Charles Lindberg completed the first solo non-stop flight across the Atlantic.
The Boeing Company
Cabin Pressurization
When the human body rises to 10,000 feet and above, it becomes vulnerable to sickness, hypoxia, and barotrauma. At this level, the body is affected by the lack of oxygen and the expanding and contracting of internal gases. By pumping compressed air into an aircraft’s cabin, these effects can be avoided. The Boeing 307 Stratoliner was the first airliner with cabin pressurization, but most advances in the technology were made during World War II, when crews needed to be able to move about the cabin without wearing oxygen masks. The pressurized air comes from the engines, where bleed air is diverted to de-ice wings and to keep the cabin oxygenated.
Joe Carnegie (Libyan Soup)
Amphibious Aircraft
World War II also brought advances to the design of amphibious aircraft. Though many seaplanes were already in operation, WWII saw uses of such aircraft expand, as armed forces recognized their potential for air-sea rescue and anti-submarine warfare. Today, amphibious aircraft are primarily valuable to civilians, especially those living in places such as Alaska and Northern Canada where reliable transportation is not always available and communities are far from each other. Also, amphibious aircraft with scoops and large water tanks are used to fight wildfires.
AP Photo/Ottawa Citizen, Nicki Corrigall, Pool
Black Box
Before the introduction of flight data and cockpit voice recorders, it was nearly impossible to know what had happened to cause a crash. Dr. David Warren, then working for Aeronautical Research Laboratories, had the idea in the mid-1950s to equip planes with a device that would record pilots’ conversations and aircraft’s instrument readings, and would survive potential impacts and fire. Today, all commercial flights are required to carry recorders, which are made to be highly impact-resistant. Modern recorders contain only solid-state electronics, so there is no tape that could be destroyed in a fire. The popular term for recorders, black boxes, is misleading because nowadays they are painted in bright, fluorescent colors to make them easily visible at crash sites and in water.
AP Photo/ Michael Dwyer
Jet Engine
The first aircraft flown with turbojet power was the Heinkel He 178 in 1939. Turbojets came into widespread use just after World War II. However, due to their inefficient use of fuel and the high noise levels produced by their fast hot exhaust air, turbojets eventually were widely replaced by high-bypass turbofans, which produce most of their thrust in the form of relatively slow-moving cold air that passes round the side of the engine rather than through it. This design reduces exhaust-air noise, improves fuel consumption and increases total thrust. However, for many years low-bypass turbojet engines provided the most efficient means of achieving Mach 2.0 speeds, and were used for the Concorde and many fast military jets. Rocket engines put aircraft into higher altitudes, and are used for launching satellites and spacecraft.
Adrian Pingstone
High Lift Devices
Without certain adjustments, an aircraft’s wing would present a troubling duality: Large wings make take-off and landing much easier, but also increase drag, and make cruising less efficient. Aircraft achieve an efficient middle ground between these characteristics by using high-lift devices, which effectively change the shape of the wing to create the most efficient lift characteristics for each different phase of a flight. Flaps extend down from the trailing edge of the wing, providing increased lift. On some aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, the flaps hinge down in two or three differently angled sections; such flaps are known as double-slotted or triple-slotted. Slats extend from the leading edges of the wing, and change the airflow over it, allowing the aircraft to achieve different pitch angles for take-offs and landings.
AP Photo/ Ryan Remiorz
New Materials
Often innovation is as much about persistence as anything else. Although most early planes were constructed from wood and fabric, engineers saw the potential for metal. But while the first all-metal aircraft flew in the early 1920s, it took about 20 years for metal to take over as the principal material for aircraft construction. Initially metal frames and wings were too heavy, not always resilient against corrosion, and reacted strongly to pressure changes. Light aluminum became the favorite material in airplane construction, and eventually exotic, very strong metals such as titanium became widely used. Modern aircraft also have many parts made from advanced carbon-fiber composite materials — effectively extremely strong plastics — and at least 50 percent of the content of the next generation of large airliners, the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 XWB, will be made from advanced composites.
AP Photo/Jacqueline Larma
Radar
An acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging, radar was experimented with as early as 1904. Radar is used to locate objects when there is no visibility or they are out of sight. By bouncing radio waves off planes, radar helps air-traffic controllers to locate them in the sky. Some long-range radars used by air traffic control centers can locate aircraft 200 nautical miles away. While radar finds objects by sending out radio waves and waiting for them to bounce back, Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) technology allows an aircraft to transmit position and identification signals by satellite link, giving controllers and other aircraft a constantly updated and accurate picture of the traffic in the skies around them.
AgustaWestland
Helicopter
During the 1800s many hours were spent trying to get a rotor-propelled aircraft to take flight. It wasn’t until 1906 that French inventors got a rotorcraft off the ground — they reached a height of two feet, and hovered for about a minute before coming back down. The helicopter industry took off in earnest in the late 1930s, through pioneers such as Igor Sikorsky. Today, because of their ability to take off and land in tight spaces and hover in place, helicopters are used throughout the world for numerous tasks. Medical transport, firefighting, and even aerial cranes make widespread use of rotorcraft technology.
Sean Russ
Non-stop World Circumnavigation
The first fixed-wing trip around the globe took quite a while: In 1924 two Douglas Cruisers did it in 173 days — almost six months. Twenty-five years later, in 1949, world circumnavigation was a little faster. James Gallagher and a crew of 14 took a Boeing B-50 Superfortress from Fort Worth, Tex. around the world in 94 hours. Gallagher’s was the first non-stop flight around the world, and it was achieved by having his aircraft refueled in midair four times. Subsequently, the Rutan Voyager, a highly specialized aircraft designed by legendary aircraft designer Burt Rutan and flown by his brother Dick Rutan and Jeana Yaeger (not related to the famous test pilot Check Yeager), made the first unrefueled, non-stop fixed-wing flight round the world in December 1986. Adventurer Steve Fossett achieved the first solo non-stop, unrefueled flight in the single-jet-powered Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer — another Rutan-company-designed aircraft — in February/March 2005. Fossett went missing on a short solo flight in Nevada in September 2007 and neither his aircraft nor his body have yet been found.
AP Photo/Markus Schreiber
Steam Catapult
In order for a large plane to takeoff from an aircraft carrier or other ship, it needs a boost. This can be accomplished with the assistance of a steam catapult. Steam is stored in a steam accumulator aboard the ship, and usually a bar is attached from the catapult to the aircraft. The bar keeps the plane in place while the steam pressure builds, and when the aircraft is finally released, it is able to shoot forward and lift off from the relatively short deck of the ship.
Adrian Pingstone
Air Brakes and Spoilers
Air brakes allow aircraft to greatly reduce their speed without significantly affecting their altitude. Air brakes are different from spoilers. Spoilers can be used during a plane’s descent to help bring it down without drastic increases in speed. They also help slow an aircraft down on the runway after it lands, their deployment being particularly helpful on a wet, slippery runway where aquaplaning could possibly take place. Many aircraft use the two braking systems together.
AP Photo/Kyoto News
Fly-By-Wire
Aircraft used to rely on mechanical and hydro-mechanical control systems. These systems require rods, cables, pumps, and pipes, and (particularly in the case of hydraulically activated flight controls) multiple redundant systems as back-ups for safety. The overall effect is a heavier and less responsive plane. Fly-by-wire and modern fly-by-light systems use computers to send messages between the pilots and the aircraft s control actuators, doing away with the need for physical linkages. Modern glass cockpits with computerized instruments and screens were pioneered by NASA, and are now standard in military aircraft and airliners.
The Boeing Company
Jumbo Jet
With its entry into commercial service in 1970, the Boeing 747 widebody airliner revolutionized the economics of air travel, making it truly available to the masses. The iconic jumbo jet was more than double the size of the 707, which had previously dominated commercial flight. Ironically, the 747 had been the loser in a U.S. Air Force competition for a new strategic airlifter (the winner was the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, still in service) and Boeing took a giant gamble in developing the 747 design for the commercial market, nearly bankrupting itself to do so. But 38 years and six major variants later, more than 1,400 747s have been built. Only in 2007 was the 747 surpassed in passenger capacity, by the Airbus A380. Most airline-industry insiders think the instantly recognizable, quirkily graceful shape of the 747 will grace the world s skies in airline service for another 40 to 50 years, mainly as a freighter aircraft: The 747 has indeed become the greatest cargo aircraft of all time, despite its early defeat by the Galaxy.
The Boeing Company
Winglets
The winglet was added to fixed-wing aircraft to reduce drag and to improve the handling of aircraft. Winglets are extensions that look like an upward bend of the wingtip. They capture some energy at the wingtip that was previously wasted as drag-creating vortices. Winglets have been used extensively by Boeing, starting with the 747-400, and by other manufacturers of jet transport aircraft. Because winglets reduce drag, they are used widely on airliners and business jets to shorten take-off distances, improve climb performance and increase range and/or payload by making cruise flight more fuel-efficient. Even jets that were originally designed without winglets now, in many cases, sport them: Winglets are increasingly available as fuel-saving retrofit options for aircraft such as the 727, 737, 757, 767 and 777, along with many other types.
AP Photo/ Evan Vucci
Vertical Take-off and Landing
Vertical take-off primarily brings to mind the helicopter. But a few fixed-wing aircraft also are capable of vertical take-off and landing (VTOL). One of the first to accomplish vertical take-off was the Rolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig. Only two of these planes were built, but they paved the way for further development in the field in the form of the Hawker Siddeley P.1127 Kestrel. The Kestrel led directly to the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, which used directed jet thrust to achieve vertical take-off, hover and vertical landing. The Harrier was the first truly successful VTOL aircraft: The Harrier and its descendant the Super Harrier have been employed widely by the United Kingdom’s Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps since the late 1960s.
Chris Iwane
Autoland
Often the smoothest landings are those where the plane s autopilot takes over for the pilot, without the passengers ever being aware the aircraft is being landed automatically. Developed to assist pilots in landing in poor visibility, autoland technology uses an altimeter and GPS or other highly accurate inertial-reference navigation system to determine the plane’s altitude and position and guides the plane safely to the ground. Because of London Heathrow Airports s notorious tendency to become fogged in, the Hawker Siddeley Trident operated by Heathrow-based British European Airways (BEA, which was merged with BOAC in the 1970s to form British Airways) was the first in-service commercial airliner to make a fully automated landing. BEA s Trident 3s also were the first aircraft to be given Category 3B autoland capability, allowing them to land in zero-vertical, zero-horizontal visibility.
Honeywell International, Inc.
EGWPS and TCAS
Simply put, a ground proximity warning system is there to make sure aircraft don’t run into anything. Throughout the history of flight many plane crashes have occurred due to the pilots not being able to see an obstruction until it is too late and flying into the ground in so-called controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents. The enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGWPS) uses a combination of terrain databases and global positioning systems to give pilots a heads-up whenever potential obstructions are in their path. Aircraft equipped with the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) communicate automatically with other aircraft while in flight to determine their positions relative to each other and extrapolate each other s flightpath trends to provide likely future positions. The TCAS units provide alerts and avoidance instructions to pilots when flightpath trends indicate a mid-air collision is very likely in the imminent future.
Tim Pritlove
Global Navigation Satellite Systems
Although the idea for a satellite navigation system goes further back, it wasn’t until the 1960s that the U.S. military launched the first functional global navigation satellite system. Once satellites could be successfully put into orbit around Earth, messages could be sent back and forth from the ground to the satellite. Today, large constellations of satellites are orbiting Earth, sending down very accurate position/time signals. A satellite navigation receiver uses that information to determine its position relative to the satellites in orbit. Today the only fully functioning navigation satellite system is the U.S.’s Global Positioning System, developed by the Department of Defense over the last 40 years. Both Russia and the European Union have large systems in the works, set to go live within the next 10 years.
U.S. Air Force Photo
Stealth
Stealth aircraft are designed to evade the watchful eye of radar technology. All the surfaces on a stealth aircraft are designed to reflect radio waves in directions other than the direction back to the receiver. Stealth technology also includes special materials that absorb some radio waves. By employing designs that shield the heat of their engine exhausts and intakes, many stealth planes also can evade heat-seeking technology. The U.S. used F-117 and B-2 stealth aircraft in the Balkans conflicts in the 1990s and in the Afghanistan and Iraq wars in this century. One of the most controversial aspects of the technology is its high cost. The B-2 program, which produced 21 planes, rang up a bill of over $45 billion. Although stealth aircraft are not completely invisible to radar, their radar signatures are tiny and they have proven very capable, so development of future aircraft continues.
AP Photo/Christof Stache
Jetway/ Air Bridge
One of air travel’s most pleasant conveniences is so commonsense that it might be overlooked. The benefits of the covered air bridge to airlines are abundant. The bridge allows the airlines complete control over who enters the plane. It keeps passengers off the tarmac. In bad/cold weather no snow or rain is carried onto the plane and passengers can move directly from the terminal to the aircraft. At New York JFK s Terminal 4, Emirates Airline s Airbus A380 superjumbo double-deckers are serviced by three jetways. Two connect to the lower deck, where nearly 400 economy-class passengers are seated, while one, built by the airline at a cost of $6 million, runs directly from Emirates premium-class lounge to the first-class and business-class cabins on the upper level of the aircraft.
United States Federal Government
Human Powered Aircraft
Imagine pedaling a bicycle fast enough to leave the ground, taking to the air and pedaling across the sky, a real-life version of Steven Spielberg’s iconic scene in E.T. Though it wasn’t exactly on a bicycle, the first authenticated human-powered flight took place in 1961, when Derek Piggott powered the launch and subsequent 650-meter flight of his craft, the Southampton University Man Powered Aircraft. In 1989 the first human-powered helicopter made a flight of more than seven seconds. Today the main use of these aircraft is for sport and racing. Work is also being done on combining human power with lighter-than-air airships.
AP Photo/ David Zalubowski
Deicing and Anti-ice
Accumulated ice on the surface of an aircraft’s wings can weigh it down and make the airflow over the wing dangerously less efficient. Wing icing has been the cause of many fatal aircraft crashes, including some involving airliners. Today, monopropylene, a non-toxic substance, is applied to wings on the ground to deice. In the air, several different deicing and anti-ice techniques exist. Bleed air from the engine can be directed to the wings to heat them up, and some wings can release anti-freeze through small holes in their surface. Some smaller aircraft incorporate inflatable boots into their wings: The idea is that, by inflating and deflating, the boot prevents ice building up and breaks up any accumulated ice, which then falls off. Also, NASA has developed a system that senses ice and sends an electrical current through the wing, causing a shock that cracks the ice.
U.S. Air Force Photo
Monoplane
In the early days of flight, the biplane design was simply more practical than the monoplane. Early wooden and fabric planes were very light and hard to control, and were susceptible to structural damage in the air. Once all-metal aircraft became widely used, the weight-efficient and lower-drag monoplane took over. Cantilever technology made fixed-wing monoplanes much stronger and less liable to twist in flight. By World War II biplanes had mostly been replaced, and monoplanes took over as the common aircraft design.
Image 1 of 24
U.S. Air Force Photo
Monoplane
In the early days of flight, the biplane design was simply more practical than the monoplane. Early wooden and fabric planes were very light and hard to control, and were susceptible to structural damage in the air. Once all-metal aircraft became widely used, the weight-efficient and lower-drag monoplane took over. Cantilever technology made fixed-wing monoplanes much stronger and less liable to twist in flight. By World War II biplanes had mostly been replaced, and monoplanes took over as the common aircraft design.
United Kingdom Government
Transatlantic Flight
The first two transatlantic flights took place within just weeks of each other. The second, piloted by John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in 1919, was the first non-stop flight from North America to Europe. They took off from Newfoundland in a twin-engine Vickers Vimy IV. The following morning, after almost 16 1/2 hours in flight, the pair landed in Ireland, having braved the elements and some engine troubles. Though rumors of Brown saving the flight by climbing on the aircraft s wings to scrap off ice are unsubstantiated, the crew did face fog and could only communicate by hand-written notes due to the noise of the plane. Eight years later, Charles Lindberg completed the first solo non-stop flight across the Atlantic.
The Boeing Company
Cabin Pressurization
When the human body rises to 10,000 feet and above, it becomes vulnerable to sickness, hypoxia, and barotrauma. At this level, the body is affected by the lack of oxygen and the expanding and contracting of internal gases. By pumping compressed air into an aircraft’s cabin, these effects can be avoided. The Boeing 307 Stratoliner was the first airliner with cabin pressurization, but most advances in the technology were made during World War II, when crews needed to be able to move about the cabin without wearing oxygen masks. The pressurized air comes from the engines, where bleed air is diverted to de-ice wings and to keep the cabin oxygenated.
Joe Carnegie (Libyan Soup)
Amphibious Aircraft
World War II also brought advances to the design of amphibious aircraft. Though many seaplanes were already in operation, WWII saw uses of such aircraft expand, as armed forces recognized their potential for air-sea rescue and anti-submarine warfare. Today, amphibious aircraft are primarily valuable to civilians, especially those living in places such as Alaska and Northern Canada where reliable transportation is not always available and communities are far from each other. Also, amphibious aircraft with scoops and large water tanks are used to fight wildfires.
AP Photo/Ottawa Citizen, Nicki Corrigall, Pool
Black Box
Before the introduction of flight data and cockpit voice recorders, it was nearly impossible to know what had happened to cause a crash. Dr. David Warren, then working for Aeronautical Research Laboratories, had the idea in the mid-1950s to equip planes with a device that would record pilots’ conversations and aircraft’s instrument readings, and would survive potential impacts and fire. Today, all commercial flights are required to carry recorders, which are made to be highly impact-resistant. Modern recorders contain only solid-state electronics, so there is no tape that could be destroyed in a fire. The popular term for recorders, black boxes, is misleading because nowadays they are painted in bright, fluorescent colors to make them easily visible at crash sites and in water.
AP Photo/ Michael Dwyer
Jet Engine
The first aircraft flown with turbojet power was the Heinkel He 178 in 1939. Turbojets came into widespread use just after World War II. However, due to their inefficient use of fuel and the high noise levels produced by their fast hot exhaust air, turbojets eventually were widely replaced by high-bypass turbofans, which produce most of their thrust in the form of relatively slow-moving cold air that passes round the side of the engine rather than through it. This design reduces exhaust-air noise, improves fuel consumption and increases total thrust. However, for many years low-bypass turbojet engines provided the most efficient means of achieving Mach 2.0 speeds, and were used for the Concorde and many fast military jets. Rocket engines put aircraft into higher altitudes, and are used for launching satellites and spacecraft.
Adrian Pingstone
High Lift Devices
Without certain adjustments, an aircraft’s wing would present a troubling duality: Large wings make take-off and landing much easier, but also increase drag, and make cruising less efficient. Aircraft achieve an efficient middle ground between these characteristics by using high-lift devices, which effectively change the shape of the wing to create the most efficient lift characteristics for each different phase of a flight. Flaps extend down from the trailing edge of the wing, providing increased lift. On some aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, the flaps hinge down in two or three differently angled sections; such flaps are known as double-slotted or triple-slotted. Slats extend from the leading edges of the wing, and change the airflow over it, allowing the aircraft to achieve different pitch angles for take-offs and landings.
AP Photo/ Ryan Remiorz
New Materials
Often innovation is as much about persistence as anything else. Although most early planes were constructed from wood and fabric, engineers saw the potential for metal. But while the first all-metal aircraft flew in the early 1920s, it took about 20 years for metal to take over as the principal material for aircraft construction. Initially metal frames and wings were too heavy, not always resilient against corrosion, and reacted strongly to pressure changes. Light aluminum became the favorite material in airplane construction, and eventually exotic, very strong metals such as titanium became widely used. Modern aircraft also have many parts made from advanced carbon-fiber composite materials — effectively extremely strong plastics — and at least 50 percent of the content of the next generation of large airliners, the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 XWB, will be made from advanced composites.
AP Photo/Jacqueline Larma
Radar
An acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging, radar was experimented with as early as 1904. Radar is used to locate objects when there is no visibility or they are out of sight. By bouncing radio waves off planes, radar helps air-traffic controllers to locate them in the sky. Some long-range radars used by air traffic control centers can locate aircraft 200 nautical miles away. While radar finds objects by sending out radio waves and waiting for them to bounce back, Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) technology allows an aircraft to transmit position and identification signals by satellite link, giving controllers and other aircraft a constantly updated and accurate picture of the traffic in the skies around them.
AgustaWestland
Helicopter
During the 1800s many hours were spent trying to get a rotor-propelled aircraft to take flight. It wasn’t until 1906 that French inventors got a rotorcraft off the ground — they reached a height of two feet, and hovered for about a minute before coming back down. The helicopter industry took off in earnest in the late 1930s, through pioneers such as Igor Sikorsky. Today, because of their ability to take off and land in tight spaces and hover in place, helicopters are used throughout the world for numerous tasks. Medical transport, firefighting, and even aerial cranes make widespread use of rotorcraft technology.
Sean Russ
Non-stop World Circumnavigation
The first fixed-wing trip around the globe took quite a while: In 1924 two Douglas Cruisers did it in 173 days — almost six months. Twenty-five years later, in 1949, world circumnavigation was a little faster. James Gallagher and a crew of 14 took a Boeing B-50 Superfortress from Fort Worth, Tex. around the world in 94 hours. Gallagher’s was the first non-stop flight around the world, and it was achieved by having his aircraft refueled in midair four times. Subsequently, the Rutan Voyager, a highly specialized aircraft designed by legendary aircraft designer Burt Rutan and flown by his brother Dick Rutan and Jeana Yaeger (not related to the famous test pilot Check Yeager), made the first unrefueled, non-stop fixed-wing flight round the world in December 1986. Adventurer Steve Fossett achieved the first solo non-stop, unrefueled flight in the single-jet-powered Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer — another Rutan-company-designed aircraft — in February/March 2005. Fossett went missing on a short solo flight in Nevada in September 2007 and neither his aircraft nor his body have yet been found.
AP Photo/Markus Schreiber
Steam Catapult
In order for a large plane to takeoff from an aircraft carrier or other ship, it needs a boost. This can be accomplished with the assistance of a steam catapult. Steam is stored in a steam accumulator aboard the ship, and usually a bar is attached from the catapult to the aircraft. The bar keeps the plane in place while the steam pressure builds, and when the aircraft is finally released, it is able to shoot forward and lift off from the relatively short deck of the ship.
Adrian Pingstone
Air Brakes and Spoilers
Air brakes allow aircraft to greatly reduce their speed without significantly affecting their altitude. Air brakes are different from spoilers. Spoilers can be used during a plane’s descent to help bring it down without drastic increases in speed. They also help slow an aircraft down on the runway after it lands, their deployment being particularly helpful on a wet, slippery runway where aquaplaning could possibly take place. Many aircraft use the two braking systems together.
AP Photo/Kyoto News
Fly-By-Wire
Aircraft used to rely on mechanical and hydro-mechanical control systems. These systems require rods, cables, pumps, and pipes, and (particularly in the case of hydraulically activated flight controls) multiple redundant systems as back-ups for safety. The overall effect is a heavier and less responsive plane. Fly-by-wire and modern fly-by-light systems use computers to send messages between the pilots and the aircraft s control actuators, doing away with the need for physical linkages. Modern glass cockpits with computerized instruments and screens were pioneered by NASA, and are now standard in military aircraft and airliners.
The Boeing Company
Jumbo Jet
With its entry into commercial service in 1970, the Boeing 747 widebody airliner revolutionized the economics of air travel, making it truly available to the masses. The iconic jumbo jet was more than double the size of the 707, which had previously dominated commercial flight. Ironically, the 747 had been the loser in a U.S. Air Force competition for a new strategic airlifter (the winner was the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, still in service) and Boeing took a giant gamble in developing the 747 design for the commercial market, nearly bankrupting itself to do so. But 38 years and six major variants later, more than 1,400 747s have been built. Only in 2007 was the 747 surpassed in passenger capacity, by the Airbus A380. Most airline-industry insiders think the instantly recognizable, quirkily graceful shape of the 747 will grace the world s skies in airline service for another 40 to 50 years, mainly as a freighter aircraft: The 747 has indeed become the greatest cargo aircraft of all time, despite its early defeat by the Galaxy.
The Boeing Company
Winglets
The winglet was added to fixed-wing aircraft to reduce drag and to improve the handling of aircraft. Winglets are extensions that look like an upward bend of the wingtip. They capture some energy at the wingtip that was previously wasted as drag-creating vortices. Winglets have been used extensively by Boeing, starting with the 747-400, and by other manufacturers of jet transport aircraft. Because winglets reduce drag, they are used widely on airliners and business jets to shorten take-off distances, improve climb performance and increase range and/or payload by making cruise flight more fuel-efficient. Even jets that were originally designed without winglets now, in many cases, sport them: Winglets are increasingly available as fuel-saving retrofit options for aircraft such as the 727, 737, 757, 767 and 777, along with many other types.
AP Photo/ Evan Vucci
Vertical Take-off and Landing
Vertical take-off primarily brings to mind the helicopter. But a few fixed-wing aircraft also are capable of vertical take-off and landing (VTOL). One of the first to accomplish vertical take-off was the Rolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig. Only two of these planes were built, but they paved the way for further development in the field in the form of the Hawker Siddeley P.1127 Kestrel. The Kestrel led directly to the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, which used directed jet thrust to achieve vertical take-off, hover and vertical landing. The Harrier was the first truly successful VTOL aircraft: The Harrier and its descendant the Super Harrier have been employed widely by the United Kingdom’s Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps since the late 1960s.
Chris Iwane
Autoland
Often the smoothest landings are those where the plane s autopilot takes over for the pilot, without the passengers ever being aware the aircraft is being landed automatically. Developed to assist pilots in landing in poor visibility, autoland technology uses an altimeter and GPS or other highly accurate inertial-reference navigation system to determine the plane’s altitude and position and guides the plane safely to the ground. Because of London Heathrow Airports s notorious tendency to become fogged in, the Hawker Siddeley Trident operated by Heathrow-based British European Airways (BEA, which was merged with BOAC in the 1970s to form British Airways) was the first in-service commercial airliner to make a fully automated landing. BEA s Trident 3s also were the first aircraft to be given Category 3B autoland capability, allowing them to land in zero-vertical, zero-horizontal visibility.
Honeywell International, Inc.
EGWPS and TCAS
Simply put, a ground proximity warning system is there to make sure aircraft don’t run into anything. Throughout the history of flight many plane crashes have occurred due to the pilots not being able to see an obstruction until it is too late and flying into the ground in so-called controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents. The enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGWPS) uses a combination of terrain databases and global positioning systems to give pilots a heads-up whenever potential obstructions are in their path. Aircraft equipped with the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) communicate automatically with other aircraft while in flight to determine their positions relative to each other and extrapolate each other s flightpath trends to provide likely future positions. The TCAS units provide alerts and avoidance instructions to pilots when flightpath trends indicate a mid-air collision is very likely in the imminent future.
Tim Pritlove
Global Navigation Satellite Systems
Although the idea for a satellite navigation system goes further back, it wasn’t until the 1960s that the U.S. military launched the first functional global navigation satellite system. Once satellites could be successfully put into orbit around Earth, messages could be sent back and forth from the ground to the satellite. Today, large constellations of satellites are orbiting Earth, sending down very accurate position/time signals. A satellite navigation receiver uses that information to determine its position relative to the satellites in orbit. Today the only fully functioning navigation satellite system is the U.S.’s Global Positioning System, developed by the Department of Defense over the last 40 years. Both Russia and the European Union have large systems in the works, set to go live within the next 10 years.
U.S. Air Force Photo
Stealth
Stealth aircraft are designed to evade the watchful eye of radar technology. All the surfaces on a stealth aircraft are designed to reflect radio waves in directions other than the direction back to the receiver. Stealth technology also includes special materials that absorb some radio waves. By employing designs that shield the heat of their engine exhausts and intakes, many stealth planes also can evade heat-seeking technology. The U.S. used F-117 and B-2 stealth aircraft in the Balkans conflicts in the 1990s and in the Afghanistan and Iraq wars in this century. One of the most controversial aspects of the technology is its high cost. The B-2 program, which produced 21 planes, rang up a bill of over $45 billion. Although stealth aircraft are not completely invisible to radar, their radar signatures are tiny and they have proven very capable, so development of future aircraft continues.
AP Photo/Christof Stache
Jetway/ Air Bridge
One of air travel’s most pleasant conveniences is so commonsense that it might be overlooked. The benefits of the covered air bridge to airlines are abundant. The bridge allows the airlines complete control over who enters the plane. It keeps passengers off the tarmac. In bad/cold weather no snow or rain is carried onto the plane and passengers can move directly from the terminal to the aircraft. At New York JFK s Terminal 4, Emirates Airline s Airbus A380 superjumbo double-deckers are serviced by three jetways. Two connect to the lower deck, where nearly 400 economy-class passengers are seated, while one, built by the airline at a cost of $6 million, runs directly from Emirates premium-class lounge to the first-class and business-class cabins on the upper level of the aircraft.
United States Federal Government
Human Powered Aircraft
Imagine pedaling a bicycle fast enough to leave the ground, taking to the air and pedaling across the sky, a real-life version of Steven Spielberg’s iconic scene in E.T. Though it wasn’t exactly on a bicycle, the first authenticated human-powered flight took place in 1961, when Derek Piggott powered the launch and subsequent 650-meter flight of his craft, the Southampton University Man Powered Aircraft. In 1989 the first human-powered helicopter made a flight of more than seven seconds. Today the main use of these aircraft is for sport and racing. Work is also being done on combining human power with lighter-than-air airships.
AP Photo/ David Zalubowski
Deicing and Anti-ice
Accumulated ice on the surface of an aircraft’s wings can weigh it down and make the airflow over the wing dangerously less efficient. Wing icing has been the cause of many fatal aircraft crashes, including some involving airliners. Today, monopropylene, a non-toxic substance, is applied to wings on the ground to deice. In the air, several different deicing and anti-ice techniques exist. Bleed air from the engine can be directed to the wings to heat them up, and some wings can release anti-freeze through small holes in their surface. Some smaller aircraft incorporate inflatable boots into their wings: The idea is that, by inflating and deflating, the boot prevents ice building up and breaks up any accumulated ice, which then falls off. Also, NASA has developed a system that senses ice and sends an electrical current through the wing, causing a shock that cracks the ice.
U.S. Air Force Photo
Monoplane
In the early days of flight, the biplane design was simply more practical than the monoplane. Early wooden and fabric planes were very light and hard to control, and were susceptible to structural damage in the air. Once all-metal aircraft became widely used, the weight-efficient and lower-drag monoplane took over. Cantilever technology made fixed-wing monoplanes much stronger and less liable to twist in flight. By World War II biplanes had mostly been replaced, and monoplanes took over as the common aircraft design.
Image 1 of 24
http://www.aviation.com/technology/081015-unmanned-aerial-combat.html
Revolution in the Air: Non-Aviators to Take Flight
By Dave Majumdar, Special to Aviation.com
posted: 17 October 2008 02:33 pm ET
Lt. Col. Geoffrey Barnes performs a preflight check of an MQ-1 Predator before a combat sortie over Iraq. The new UAS operator trainees will fly the Predator until the new career field is validated. Once the USAF gains enough confidence in the new operators will other drones become available to gradautes of the UAS operator course.
An MQ-1 Predator takes off from Balad Joint Base in Iraq. The Predator was America's first oerational combat drone having served in Kosovo almost 10 years ago. While not designed as a combat aircraft from the onset, it has proven to be a valuable asset in the current wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The UAS operator trainees will eventually fly Predator drones should they successfully complete the \"beta test\" course.
A follow on to the Predator, the MQ-9 Reaper is larger, faster and more heavily armed than the smaller aircraft. Carrying a payload nearly equivalent to a F-16 fighter and with many times the endurance, the Reaper is a valueable asset. While UPT graduates are eligible to fly these machines, the UAS operator course graduates will have to wait a few years before the USAF gain enough confidence in their abilities.
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On January 5th 2009, the United States Air Force will launch perhaps the most ambitious experiment in the annals of air warfare. For the first time in history, officers who have no aviation experience will learn to fly unmanned combat drones into battle without ever setting foot into a real aircraft.
This dramatic shift comes as the USAF ramps up operations in order to meet the surging demand for aerial surveillance assets in Iraq and Afghanistan. In order to meet the challenge head on, the USAF looked at “innovative ways to get the war fighter what he needs to get the job done” said Lt. Col. Tom Marocchini, an A1 air operations officer at USAF headquarters, resulting in a sea-change in Air Force attitudes towards the training of drone operators.
Initially 10 officers, most of whom have no aviation experience, will be selected for what has been termed a “beta test” by senior Air Force officials, said Brigadier General Carlton D. Everhart of the USAF’s Air Education and Training Command (AETC). These officers are to be the pioneers for what is hoped will become a brand new career field for the operators of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), Everhart said.
Selection standards for this initial cadre of aviators will be rigorous, Everhart said. While some physiological requirements are relaxed compared to the pilots of manned aircraft, the service is “maintaining the same eye sight requirements, including depth perception and color vision”, said Colonel Curt Sheldon, an A3-OA air operations officer at USAF headquarters. Additionally, many of the same academic requirements have also been maintained, including passing the Test of Basic Aviation Skills (TBAS) and Air Force Officer Qualification Test (AFOQT), as these have been shown to predict success in the air, Sheldon said.
Training for this new class of officers will begin much the same way as those entering the regular USAF Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT) pipeline. As training starts, the class will undergo Initial Flight Screening (IFS) to teach the students “air sense” and the emergency procedures needed to move on to flying more sophisticated machines, Everhart said. “Teaching air sense is the biggest open question. How long does it take to teach air sense? How long does it take for students to grasp the concepts?” are all areas of concern to the USAF, Everhart said.
The next stop is Randolph Air Force Base (AFB) in Oklahoma. Here the students will undergo academic and simulator training for instrument flight, air navigation, holding patterns and most importantly deconflicting with other aircraft traffic, Everhart said. The new aviators will also learn the finer points of how to operate with Air Force Air Tasking Orders (ATO) in order to fly in a combat zone and Crew Resource Management (CRM) in order to coordinate with their sensor operator. The biggest difference between the regular UPT course and the UAS operator course is that the UAS operators will not actually fly the T-6 during their training, Everhart explained- all the flying is done in a simulator.
The final step before entering flight training on a Predator UAS is the Joint Air Ground Operations Group (JAGOG). Here, the students will learn to coordinate with the ground forces that they are to support, Everhart said. The school not only teaches the finer points of the close air support and air interdiction to pilots but also serves as the training unit for the Joint Terminal Attack Controllers (JTAC) who clear the pilots to unleash their weapons on the enemy during such missions. Everhart explained that this phase of the training will be critical in developing the student’s “air sense”.
The final phase of the new training pipeline will be at the MQ-1 Predator Formal Training Unit (FTU) at Creech AFB, Nevada. At the FTU, the new aviators will attend what is known as the b-course where they will learn to fly and fight with the MQ-1 Predators. The b-course is designed for new pilots who have no experience in any major weapons system to learn the basics of flying an aircraft in combat, Everhart explained.
Once the b-course is completed, the new aviators are basic aircraft qualified. However, the aviators must still complete the mission qualification course at their operational squadron in order to be considered full fledged combat pilots. If the students prove to be successful, the USAF will make a decision on creating a permanent new career field for UAS operators. Additionally, AETC also hopes to eventually create a FTU for every individual UAS type, Everhart said. Sheldon cautions however, that while he expects the new training program to succeed, the “success of the beta testing is not a foregone conclusion.”
While the fate of the dedicated UAS pipeline is decided, the USAF is concurrently embarking on a program to take 100 new graduates from UPT per year and send them directly to a Predator, Global Hawk or Reaper UAS. Unlike the participants of the beta test program who will be initially restricted to the Predator aircraft, the UPT graduates will be allowed to fly any UAS in the inventory to which they are assigned, Sheldon said. Also unlike those graduating from the beta test program, the UPT graduates will not remain in the unmanned drone business permanently.
“The Chief (of Staff) has made the commitment that these pilots will return to flying a manned weapons system” after a three year tour flying a UAS, Everhart said. Similarly, those USAF pilots who were involuntarily reassigned to flying combat drones under the Transformational Aircrew Management Initiative- 21 (TAMI-21) program might also eventually return to flying manned aircraft as circumstances change, Sheldon said.
Sheldon, who is a former F-16 Fighting Falcon pilot, said for those UPT graduates who are assigned to flying drones, the future is bright. Sheldon explains that not only do these pilots “get into the fight” immediately, they gain a breadth and depth of experience which will be of value later on in their careers and that experience will be fully applicable to manned weapons systems. In Iraq or Afghanistan, “when you get a call for a Close Air Support platform, the most requested platform is a UAS,” Everhart said, “with a UAS on station, you can watch, direct troop movements” in addition to attacking the enemy directly. “There is a lot of capability there, the future is very bright” Everhart said. Sheldon added, “Fully half of the aircraft that the Air Force will be buying in the future are going be unmanned. This community is going to be the second largest after the F-16 community. Getting in early is not a bad thing.”
While the ultimate fate of the dedicated UAS operator career field has yet to be decided, Everhart, Sheldon and Marocchini said they are optimistic, pointing out that the USAF only accepts highly qualified personnel into the ranks. While it has yet to be determined if the UAS operators will be “rated” i.e. part of the elite Air Force fraternity of aviators, Everhart said that he personally believes that it will happen, adding that “these guys are real warriors.” Sheldon, meanwhile, would only say that they are in the data-gathering phase, however should the UAS operators eventually be considered rated officers, he said that “it could potentially change the face of the Air Force.”
By Dave Majumdar, Special to Aviation.com
posted: 17 October 2008 02:33 pm ET
Lt. Col. Geoffrey Barnes performs a preflight check of an MQ-1 Predator before a combat sortie over Iraq. The new UAS operator trainees will fly the Predator until the new career field is validated. Once the USAF gains enough confidence in the new operators will other drones become available to gradautes of the UAS operator course.
An MQ-1 Predator takes off from Balad Joint Base in Iraq. The Predator was America's first oerational combat drone having served in Kosovo almost 10 years ago. While not designed as a combat aircraft from the onset, it has proven to be a valuable asset in the current wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The UAS operator trainees will eventually fly Predator drones should they successfully complete the \"beta test\" course.
A follow on to the Predator, the MQ-9 Reaper is larger, faster and more heavily armed than the smaller aircraft. Carrying a payload nearly equivalent to a F-16 fighter and with many times the endurance, the Reaper is a valueable asset. While UPT graduates are eligible to fly these machines, the UAS operator course graduates will have to wait a few years before the USAF gain enough confidence in their abilities.
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On January 5th 2009, the United States Air Force will launch perhaps the most ambitious experiment in the annals of air warfare. For the first time in history, officers who have no aviation experience will learn to fly unmanned combat drones into battle without ever setting foot into a real aircraft.
This dramatic shift comes as the USAF ramps up operations in order to meet the surging demand for aerial surveillance assets in Iraq and Afghanistan. In order to meet the challenge head on, the USAF looked at “innovative ways to get the war fighter what he needs to get the job done” said Lt. Col. Tom Marocchini, an A1 air operations officer at USAF headquarters, resulting in a sea-change in Air Force attitudes towards the training of drone operators.
Initially 10 officers, most of whom have no aviation experience, will be selected for what has been termed a “beta test” by senior Air Force officials, said Brigadier General Carlton D. Everhart of the USAF’s Air Education and Training Command (AETC). These officers are to be the pioneers for what is hoped will become a brand new career field for the operators of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), Everhart said.
Selection standards for this initial cadre of aviators will be rigorous, Everhart said. While some physiological requirements are relaxed compared to the pilots of manned aircraft, the service is “maintaining the same eye sight requirements, including depth perception and color vision”, said Colonel Curt Sheldon, an A3-OA air operations officer at USAF headquarters. Additionally, many of the same academic requirements have also been maintained, including passing the Test of Basic Aviation Skills (TBAS) and Air Force Officer Qualification Test (AFOQT), as these have been shown to predict success in the air, Sheldon said.
Training for this new class of officers will begin much the same way as those entering the regular USAF Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT) pipeline. As training starts, the class will undergo Initial Flight Screening (IFS) to teach the students “air sense” and the emergency procedures needed to move on to flying more sophisticated machines, Everhart said. “Teaching air sense is the biggest open question. How long does it take to teach air sense? How long does it take for students to grasp the concepts?” are all areas of concern to the USAF, Everhart said.
The next stop is Randolph Air Force Base (AFB) in Oklahoma. Here the students will undergo academic and simulator training for instrument flight, air navigation, holding patterns and most importantly deconflicting with other aircraft traffic, Everhart said. The new aviators will also learn the finer points of how to operate with Air Force Air Tasking Orders (ATO) in order to fly in a combat zone and Crew Resource Management (CRM) in order to coordinate with their sensor operator. The biggest difference between the regular UPT course and the UAS operator course is that the UAS operators will not actually fly the T-6 during their training, Everhart explained- all the flying is done in a simulator.
The final step before entering flight training on a Predator UAS is the Joint Air Ground Operations Group (JAGOG). Here, the students will learn to coordinate with the ground forces that they are to support, Everhart said. The school not only teaches the finer points of the close air support and air interdiction to pilots but also serves as the training unit for the Joint Terminal Attack Controllers (JTAC) who clear the pilots to unleash their weapons on the enemy during such missions. Everhart explained that this phase of the training will be critical in developing the student’s “air sense”.
The final phase of the new training pipeline will be at the MQ-1 Predator Formal Training Unit (FTU) at Creech AFB, Nevada. At the FTU, the new aviators will attend what is known as the b-course where they will learn to fly and fight with the MQ-1 Predators. The b-course is designed for new pilots who have no experience in any major weapons system to learn the basics of flying an aircraft in combat, Everhart explained.
Once the b-course is completed, the new aviators are basic aircraft qualified. However, the aviators must still complete the mission qualification course at their operational squadron in order to be considered full fledged combat pilots. If the students prove to be successful, the USAF will make a decision on creating a permanent new career field for UAS operators. Additionally, AETC also hopes to eventually create a FTU for every individual UAS type, Everhart said. Sheldon cautions however, that while he expects the new training program to succeed, the “success of the beta testing is not a foregone conclusion.”
While the fate of the dedicated UAS pipeline is decided, the USAF is concurrently embarking on a program to take 100 new graduates from UPT per year and send them directly to a Predator, Global Hawk or Reaper UAS. Unlike the participants of the beta test program who will be initially restricted to the Predator aircraft, the UPT graduates will be allowed to fly any UAS in the inventory to which they are assigned, Sheldon said. Also unlike those graduating from the beta test program, the UPT graduates will not remain in the unmanned drone business permanently.
“The Chief (of Staff) has made the commitment that these pilots will return to flying a manned weapons system” after a three year tour flying a UAS, Everhart said. Similarly, those USAF pilots who were involuntarily reassigned to flying combat drones under the Transformational Aircrew Management Initiative- 21 (TAMI-21) program might also eventually return to flying manned aircraft as circumstances change, Sheldon said.
Sheldon, who is a former F-16 Fighting Falcon pilot, said for those UPT graduates who are assigned to flying drones, the future is bright. Sheldon explains that not only do these pilots “get into the fight” immediately, they gain a breadth and depth of experience which will be of value later on in their careers and that experience will be fully applicable to manned weapons systems. In Iraq or Afghanistan, “when you get a call for a Close Air Support platform, the most requested platform is a UAS,” Everhart said, “with a UAS on station, you can watch, direct troop movements” in addition to attacking the enemy directly. “There is a lot of capability there, the future is very bright” Everhart said. Sheldon added, “Fully half of the aircraft that the Air Force will be buying in the future are going be unmanned. This community is going to be the second largest after the F-16 community. Getting in early is not a bad thing.”
While the ultimate fate of the dedicated UAS operator career field has yet to be decided, Everhart, Sheldon and Marocchini said they are optimistic, pointing out that the USAF only accepts highly qualified personnel into the ranks. While it has yet to be determined if the UAS operators will be “rated” i.e. part of the elite Air Force fraternity of aviators, Everhart said that he personally believes that it will happen, adding that “these guys are real warriors.” Sheldon, meanwhile, would only say that they are in the data-gathering phase, however should the UAS operators eventually be considered rated officers, he said that “it could potentially change the face of the Air Force.”
Monday, March 2, 2009
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